Impact of Genomics on the Future of Healthcare

Impact of Genomics on the Future of Healthcare The aim of this paper is to address genomics and how it can affect healthcare in the future. This paper contains an explanation what genomic sequencing is and how the sequencing can benefit the future of healthcare. Genome sequencing can allow scientists to predict diseases before symptoms show. It will also be discussing the ethical implications of genome sequencing and its current limitations. Genomics is the study of genomes; a genome is an organisms complete list or set of DNA, and all the genes it codes for[DS1]. Essentially it i all the information needed to make and sustain that organism. Genome sequencing is sourcing the exact order of the base pairs that make up DNA and genome. On 14th April 2003 the Human Genome Project was complete: it took 13 years to complete and cost $2.7 billion. Although this project took a large amount of time and money, it was definitely worth it. The completed genome has made it possible for scientists and researchers to find genes easily and has helped them understand how genes work together to direct the growth, development and maintenance of an entire organism (Genome News Network, 2003). A better understanding of the genome will also allow scientists to understand what causes certain diseases and in turn develop better treatments for them. It can also lead to more personalized medicine, for example how the variations in an individuals genome can affect how they respond to drugs. Further research into the human genome would revolutionise modern medicine and healthcare as we know it[DS2]. We attended regular meetings where we discussed futurology and topics such as DNA Health. There was also a workshop where we worked on and developed skills such as referencing. We independently conducted research by searching articles, journals, and websites online. We collected secondary data. Genomics can be used to predict illness before symptoms show. This would mean that treatment could begin as early as possible, and precautions could be taken to ensure that patients wont ever get the symptoms. The rapid development of DNA sequencing technology has now made it possible for individuals to get their genome sequenced affordably and practically, this is personal genomics. Dr. Stephen Quake sequenced his own genome and built a database of gene variations and their connections to a range of medical conditions and diseases. Using Quakes genetic profile they discovered that he had mutations that can cause a fatal and sudden heart attack, and over 50% chance of becoming diabetic and obese. It also indicated how Quake would react to different medications- there are many heart disease drugs which he may react badly to. This made it possible for doctors to take what they deemed necessary precautions to prevent heart disease and gave him statins. Being able to predict future disea se and make sure that only medicine which would work best for that individual is given would save our healthcare system a lot of money as drugs wouldnt be wasted on patients they wont benefit, and illness could be prevented instead of cures or treated which often takes a lot more money and time. Dr. Quake said, Were at the dawn of a new age in genomics, information like this will enable doctors to deliver personalised healthcare like never before. Couples who want children can also use personal genomics to find out if they are a carrier for a gene that may cause their child to have a disorder or disease, for example cystic fibrosis. If both of them have a carrier gene they can take the necessary precautions to ensure that their child does not. For example, having their baby through in vitro fertilisation (IVF). The Personal Genome Project is a long-term study which aims to sequence and analyse over 100,000 peoples genome. This could help research into personal genomics. Volunteers send in a DNA sample and information on their phenotype and medical records, this helps researchers to better understand the association between our genes, our environment, and our phenotype (our physical appearance). A survey conducted by Sermo (a social network site for doctors and physicians) revealed that 73% of physicians had not recommended that their patients get their genome sequenced. In another poll, 74% doctors stated they believed family medical history was more informative for diagnosing and treating patients than genome sequencing (Begley,2016). The field of genomics is relatively new; this could be why so many doctors are opposed to it. Dr. Girgis stated that there is a lack of treatment available to address whatever risks are identified and that there is no evidence for doing this testing (Begley,2016). Many doctors believe that genome sequencing is not evidence based and that there is not enough large scale research into its benefits. Some doctors suggested that information indicating that you will eventually have a heart attack is useless if nothing can be changed to prevent it. The benefits of genome sequencing will be more relevant and achievable when we have the technology to develop treatments which can ensure the prevention of any conditions that may be found in the sequence. Those who participate in genome sequencing research such as the personal genome project are susceptible to genetic discrimination from employers, or insurance companies. As it may be discovered that they have a variation that makes them more at risk of certain conditions or illnesses; or if they discover they are at risk of inheriting an illness[DS3]. To prevent this from occurring the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008 was created. Title I of the Act prevents health insurers from being discriminatory, by making it illegal for them to ask customers to undergo genetic testing, or inquire about genetic information when deciding a persons insurance eligibility or coverage. This part began on 21st May 2005 (Genetics Home Reference, 2016[DS4]) Title II of the Act protects people from discrimination from employers by preventing them from using genetic information when making any decisions about hiring, promotions, salary, or dismissal. It also banns employment agencies from asking about genetic information, or requesting genetic tests. This part was implemented on 21st November 2009 (Genetics Home Reference, 2016). Another ethical issue concerning genome sequencing is the protection of participants privacy. Although the data collected needs to be shared broadly to maximize its value for ongoing exploration and research; the participants privacy also needs to be protected (National Human Genome Research Institute, 2015). However, because DNA is so unique to each individual it can never become 100% anonymised. There are a number of databases held by NIH where researchers can put up de-identified data. In 2013 a study by Homer et al pointed out that it was possible to identify participants using the data in the databases and public records (Wright et al, 2013). Since, NIH has control over who has access the to the data, ensuring that the privacy of participants is upheld. Before participation, volunteers are made aware of the potential risks they face if their genetic information were to be released, and are asked to sign an informed consent form. Informed consent forms should contain a description of the method of research; uses of the results; what results mean; if results show the risk of a condition that may affect family members or children. Despite being a relatively new field, genomics has come very far in a short amount of time, the Human Genome Project took 13 years and $2.7 billion. But today anyone can have their genome sequenced in 24 hours for $1000. Genome sequencing has already developed a lot; allowing scientists like Dr. Quake to predict illness and attempt to prevent it occurring by taking precautions, whether that means a change in lifestyle or taking medicine. Genome sequencing also makes it possible to determine which drugs work best for certain individuals and which drugs dont; this is very beneficial as it means money wont be wasted on giving ineffective treatment and medicine to those it wont help. However, genomics still has a long way to go. there is no benefit of being able to predict illness if you cannot treat the illness. Medical science needs to develop more and discover ways to treat more illnesses and diseases for the prediction of them to become very useful. Also, there are many ethical implications of genome sequencing e.g. privacy and discrimination. Although law and acts have been put in place to try and solve these issues there is still a chance that participants of sequencing will experience a breach of privacy; hence they have to sign an informed consent form. Genomics can definitely benefit and change healthcare in the future with more study and large-scale research. References      Ã‚   What is the human genome project? (no date) Available at: https://www.genome.gov/11511417/what-is-the-human-genome-project/ (Accessed: 9 September 2016) Wright, G.E., Koornhof, P.G., Adeyemo, A.A. and Tiffin, N. (2013) Ethical and legal implications of whole genome and whole exome sequencing in African populations, BMC Medical Ethics, 14(1), p. 21. doi: 10.1186/1472-6939-14-21. Begley, Sharon. Consumers Arent Wild About Genetic Testing Nor Are Doctors. STAT. N.p., 2016. Web. 7 Sept. 2016. Reference, Genetics. What Is Informed Consent?. Genetics Home Reference. N.p., 2016. Web. 9 Sept. 2016. Sample, I. (2016) Healthy genome used to predict disease risk in later life. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/apr/29/healthy-genome-predict-disease-risk (Accessed: 9 September 2016). Collins, Francis et al. A Vision For The Future Of Genomics Research. Nature Publishing Group (2003): n. pag. Web. 9 Sept. 2016. J, 2004 (2000) Whats a genome? Available at: http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/whats_a_genome/Chp2_1.shtml (Accessed: 6 September 2016 What Is The Human Genome Project?. Genome.gov. N.p., 2016. Web. 9 Sept. 2016. [DS6] [DS1]Needed to b referenced. [DS2]All good   points made, but what you make factual statements you will need to support them with academic literature to back it up. [DS3]Good point, but you needed to show a reference to support it. [DS4]Good. [DS5]Should have given more attention to your reference list. [DS6]The diagram needed labeling.

Hawthorne Effect

History and definition of Hawthorne EffectThe Hawthorne Effect is a psychological phenomenon that refers to the effect on a person’s or group behavior when they know they are being observed (Last, 2002). The Hawthorne Effect is commonly beneficial, as the person or group tend to improve behaviors or increase productivity when under observation (Last, 2002). The Hawthorne Effect was first recorded at the General Electric manufacturing plant in Hawthorne, Illinois, where a set of studies was being conducted (Last, 2002).These studies were conducted during the 1920’s, seeking to answer if better lighting enhanced workers productivity (List & Levitt, 2011). As a result, they observed that regardless of the conditions, rest periods or work days the women working there worked harder and more efficiently while the research was conducted, concluding with the emergence of the concept that is now known as The Hawthorne Effect (List & Levitt 2011). Example of Hawthorne EffectWhy i s it important for researchers to know about this?Many types of research use human research subjects, and the Hawthorne Effect is unavoidable bias that the researcher must try to take into account when they analyze the results. Subjects are always liable to modify behavior when they are aware they are part of an experiment, and this is extremely difficult to quantify. The researcher needs to know about the effect; where it can be factored into the design. If a group is isolated from their work colleagues, for the purpose of research, the individual attention and the normal human instinct to feel â€Å"chosen†, will skew the results.Researchers  argue that the Hawthorne Effect does not exist or is, at best, the placebo effect under another name. Others postulate that it is the demand effect, where subjects subconsciously change their behavior to fit the expected results of an experiment.â€Å"http://explorable.com/hawthorne-effect†

The Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels

With an Analysis of the four authors and their take on politics and society, it becomes easy clear that their ideas on human reason have become very influential. Each idea has become a basis of reference when it comes to structuring government roles in a variety of nations over the past centuries. Although each idea is extreme in its own way, societies have implemented them into the roles of the government as well as how private property should be handled. John Locke wrote the Second Treatise on Government where his main issue concerns the relationship of people to their government and where the lines are drawn on what the government can do that is acceptable. Niccolo Machiavelli wrote The Prince, in which he argues that people are†¦show more content†¦To explain this deeper, Locke believes that all men are born free of any sort of government, ruler or law. The â€Å"laws of nature† are rules that have been established naturally as a result of people’s attempt at stabilizing a moral path. A man being born free applies to politics and society because the government has the right to tell a man what to do through a set of laws if he does not want to do it. Locke also mentions how people live in â€Å"a state of equality in which no-one has more power and authority than anyone else† (Locke 3). With this quote, Locke wants people to know that everyone is born equal in terms of â€Å"abilities† (Locke 4) and being made by the same maker, God (Locke 4). Being equal emphasizes and reinforces the first example because if we are all made the same way and are capable of the same abilities, then people cannot rule over others and humans have the option to obey the laws set by the government. Locke applies his views on human nature to the construction of the government by saying, â€Å"The only way anyone can strip off his natural liberty and clothe himself in the bonds of civil society is for him to agree with other men to unite into a community, so as to live together comfortably, safely, and peaceably, in a secure enjoyment of their properties and a greater security against outsiders† (Locke 32). Locke expects that the formation of the government should be decided The Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels The Communist Manifesto was written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to begin explaining Communism and its goals. The Manifesto suggests that history acts according to what is called â€Å"class struggle.† The â€Å"means of production† are what truly defines the class relationships according to Marx and Engels (Marx 2002). Inevitably, the classes conflict and become hostile, no longer moving fluidly (Spalding 2000). The Manifesto states that this conflict becomes so severe that it eventually becomes a revolution and one of the classes becomes the ruler of the other, keeping one oppressed while the other flourishes. These two classes by name are the bourgeoisie and the proletariat (Marx ch.2 2002). The bourgeoisie being the highly upper class and the proletariat being everyone else or the â€Å"working class†. It is important to note that Karl Marx was a member of the bourgeoisie himself. He had the ability to recognize the partiality given to the upper class an d the repercussions of this act (Marx 2002). According to this manifesto, the dynamic between the two has shaped the way society has industry where its values originate. Before this, it was traditionally so that society was organized into more complex hierarchies (Spalding 2000). But, as a result of the French Revolution, feudalism was replaced by this newer sense of class order. Instead of having a variety of classes such as nobles, artisans, royalty etc., there were now simply two. There was now a severe demand for moreShow MoreRelatedThe Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels Essay929 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"The Communist Manifesto† – the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels was published on February 21, 1848. This book is the first document of scientific communism and the first program of the international communist organizations and parties. It is the most systematic work of all thoughts and great teachings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. â€Å"The Communist Manifesto† consists of the main statements of the materialistic conception of history, the impartial laws of social development, the laws ofRead MoreThe Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels1746 Words   |  7 Pagesdrawn on what the government can do that is acceptable. 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This caused the Communists to assemble in London and create this Manifesto in order to make their views public and clarifiedRead MoreThe Communist Manifesto, By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels Essay1664 Words   |  7 PagesThe Communist Manifesto The Communist Manifesto was drafted under the commission of the Communist League, a body that consisted of a group of radical workers who were disgruntled by the abject poverty of the working class in industrialized Europe. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, the authors of the Communist Manifesto, lived at a time when the gap between the rich and the poor was becoming evidently wide, and the working class was struggling to survive. The Communist Manifesto is a result of contextRead MoreThe Communist Manifesto, By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels1000 Words   |  4 Pagesis the history of class struggles† (Marx). In the year 1848, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels decided to publish a manifesto after sitting down and sharing ideas for a period of time. 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They mention that in The Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels Adam Hilt November 4, 2015 COMM 8200 Analysis of The Communist Manifesto A spectre is haunting Europe--the spectre of Communism. The Communist Manifesto reflects an attempt by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to explain the goals of Communism, as well as the theory behind the movement. Marx sees all of Europe allied against the idea of communism and consistently demonizes it and its followers. This caused the Communists to assemble in London and create this Manifesto in order to make their views public and clarified. The main focus of the writing is the relationship between the classes of people. The relationship is used to create the world’s commodities. The upper class runs the factories and the lower class works them, this relationship is the basis of a capitalist economy. However, once that relationship between the classes ceases to be of any benefit to the lower class a revolution occurs and a new class emerges as the rulers. Marx illustrates this process as one that natu rally occurs, â€Å"The history of all hitherto existing societyis the history of class struggles.†Marx saw society as a constant class conflict between the upper class or bourgeoisie and the proletariat or working class. Marx believed that capitalism was quickly becoming incompatible with the unfair treatment of the working class and this would cause the proletariat to lead a revolution. The Manifesto argues that this revolution would be different than the revolutions of the past due to the lack ofShow MoreRelatedThe Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels Essay929 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"The Communist Manifesto† – the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels was published on February 21, 1848. This book is the first document of scientific communism and the first program of the international communist organizations and parties. It is the most systematic work of all thoughts and great teachings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. â€Å"The Commu nist Manifesto† consists of the main statements of the materialistic conception of history, the impartial laws of social development, the laws ofRead MoreThe Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels1746 Words   |  7 Pagesdrawn on what the government can do that is acceptable. Niccolo Machiavelli wrote The Prince, in which he argues that people are naturally immoral and will do what they can, whether good or bad, to maintain well-liked. In The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, the main argument is that humans are rational and would be able to govern themselves as a result of have one single class. 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Still resonating in contemporary society, class struggle, especially between these two classesRead MoreEssay The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels958 Words   |  4 PagesThe Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels The Communist Manifesto, written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, outlines how a society should be run under communism. The document provides truths to what is wrong with society; what causes these wrongs; how they can be fixed; and how this relates to humans and nature. Marx was a political philosopher of German ancestry. Marx and Engels split the document up into four sections: Section 1: Bourgeois and Proletarians, section 2:Read MoreManifesto Of The Communist Party, Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels927 Words   |  4 Pages In Manifesto of the Communist Party, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels outline the issues associated with the division of society into two groups: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is a group that encompasses modern capitalists. The proletariat group pertains to the modern working class. While these two groups appear in today’s world, the authors make it evident that all throughout history there has been a division in society between oppressors and oppressed. They mention that in

The Effects of the Economy On Business Administration...

The Effects of the Economy On Business Administration The career I choose to pursue is the career of Business Administration. This career consists of running a small or big business and being able to run it and be capable of making small or very important decisions. A business runs and depends on the people and how people spend their money. If people spend their money responsibly and they know how to administrate their money and will make the economy to be stable and be good. As we all know, the economy has been really bad for the past year and it has made millions of people loose their homes and their jobs. The economy is a big factor in this career and it could be a huge problem that can be faced for a long period of time and more than†¦show more content†¦The recession is a way of saying that administrators did not make the best of decisions on how they ran their business. Business administrators are not the only ones who are responsible for the recession that we fell into. Stockholders, investors, unions and even the govern ment also have a hand on why we landed into the recession. As we all know you cannot run a business without employees or buyers. In the past year since the recession started unemployment was at its record high since 1999. The unemployment rate was at 10.2% in November 2009 (BOLS). What this means is that if the unemployment rate is higher it means that there is lees work for people to find and that affects the economy in a direct way because people are not making money and well much less spending it. If people do not spend money businesses do not make money and it affects the economy and the economy affects everyone. This problem does not only affect the people living in the United States but also the rest of the world. If the economy in China is bad it will affect all the countries that do business with it and get resources from it. The effect that one economy has on the others is not a direct impact but a sure impact over time. If business is bad in one country and it makes the economy go down, thus making the countries that trade resource s and products with it beShow MoreRelatedFinancial Emergency During The World Economic Forum1371 Words   |  6 PagesMicroeconomic Stability: According to the World Economic Forum, Bahrain s economy is a standout amongst the most stable. The worldwide financial emergency had an impact on Bahrain s economy which came about on moderate economic development amid 2009. As per IMF, the economy of Bahrain dealt with the financial emergency well. As a consequence of financial emergency Bahrain encountered a sharp fall in oil costs, a fixing of worldwide capital markets and decrease in provincial and neighbourhood landRead MoreHow The Government Manages Macroeconomic Issues1276 Words   |  6 Pagesdiagram of the workings of the economy, this contextual investigation concentrates on the key part of HM Treasury in actualizing Government financial arrangements. It concentrates on: 1. 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Sustainable social systems maintain that all members are allowed to contribute, thereby synthesizing the final product. CorporateRead MoreFranklin D. Roosevelts National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)1131 Words   |  5 PagesFranklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal was a package of economic programs that were made and proposed from 1933 up to 1936. The goals of the package were to give relief to farmers, reform to business and finance, and recovery to the economy during the Great Depression. Among many other new acts to help give recovery to the economy, the NIRA was born. The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) was created by Roosevelt to see to the needs of industry, trade unions, and even the consumer, promoting cooperationRead MoreRelationship Between An Organization, Its Environment And Affiliation1425 Words   |  6 PagesThe Relationship Between An Organization, Its Environment And Affiliation To Globalization In Today s Modern Economy. 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(2005) in this article dives into the present status of the SME segment in India, rising patterns and perspective changes occurring in this segment andRead MoreOpec And Oil And Exporting Countries1566 Words   |  7 PagesInternational Monetary Exchange (SIMEX,http://www.simex.com.sg). Other websites that also serve information about the price of oil are the web sites of the Paris-based International Energy Agency (IEA, http://www.iea.org) and the US Energy Information Administration (EIA, http://www.eia.doe.gov). Influence of OPEC in Oil Production and Oil Prices: In order to coordinate the oil production policies the ministers of the organization meet twice in a year. They discuss about the methods to balance the supply